Chapter 2 Literature

2.1 Mapping

Mapping helps to locate a FLS on the earth’s surface presented on digital or paper map (Carocci et al. 2009). Fish landing site distributions can be mapped within a GIS environment using georeferenced fisheries data (Noji, Pederson, and Adams 2006). Mapping the distribution of fish landing sites helps to visualize and understand where critical or sensitive fish landing sites are located, and this information is essential for successful fisheries management (Carocci et al. 2009). Mapping the fishery and the resources should be among the priority tasks when planning for fisheries management (Caddy and Carocci 1999). Fisher (2007) prepared a manual with practical guidelines and principles of cartography which elaborated the basic concepts underlying preparation of maps and charts, collection of geographical information and graphical techniques to improve information transfer from cartographic representation to the end user.

Maps enable anyone to overcome the frustration of an ‘illiteracy syndrome’ that difficult words otherwise impose and so allow everyone to be more content [Fisher and Rahel (2004). A special purpose map, prepared with an objective to show distribution of a theme (such as fish landing sites) is known as thematic map (Noji, Pederson, and Adams 2006). A synoptic map can be an invaluable basic document for investment planning and for display of economic information in a spatial context (e.g. socioeconomic status of fishermen, rates of unemployment, etc.). One of the areas where information of different types needs to be combined in this way is in preparation of management plans for fisheries. Caddy and Carocci (1999) pointed that the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) have been recommending that spatial management via mapping should be a prerequisite for the strategic development of fisheries. Although this has been difficult in Tanzania for the past years, recently the advent of GIS has opened up extraordinary opportunities.

A thematic map can be used to highlight the particular coastal areas which support the natural resources (mangroves, coral reefs, MPA etc.) and manmade infrastructural facilities like fisherman villages, landing centers, fish markets, processing plants, export units, which are the basic means to exploit natural fishery resources. All the natural and infrastructural facilities available can be expressed on a thematic map, which is of direct relevance to all users and administrators of the marine environment for proper understanding, planning, managing and optimal utilization of available facilities and resources (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). Also, mapping helps to visualize and understand where sensitive fish landing sites are located, and this information is essential for successful fisheries management (Medina Pizzali 1988).

2.2 GIS Capability and Spatial Database

Breman (2002) described a Geographic Information System (GIS) as a computer assisted database usually used to digitally collate, analyze and present geographic data. GIS is certainly the fastest growing form with the most applications, without which many of the daily functions would not be possible. GIS is used for a vast range of tasks for nearly everything. In Industry and particularly in agriculture, GIS is used extensively for mapping of crop yield and crop rotation cycles, as well as projecting future soil loss on farms, be it from erosion, or poor use (Kam 1989). Since a GIS can be used to manage information from wherever it is located, GIS is becoming increasingly valuable in business management, allowing information to be obtained about where the customers are, what their preferences are (market research), spending patterns, and how to optimally exploit this information to maximize overall market share to minimize effective competition (Martin and Hall-Arber 2008).

Cities and city planners cannot do without GIS to track maintenance, keep inventories and map locations, and model scenarios and distribution of services (Kam 1989). GIS is used daily in the conservation of the environment. Species and resources can not only be mapped but can also be modeled, which allows for a preventative view on possibilities or scenarios, allowing greater solution about a specific problem (Kraak and Ormeling 2013). Furthermore, managing coastal resources is also more sustainable with the use of a GIS, where the study of mapping of fishing grounds have been conducted (Noji, Pederson, and Adams 2006).

Integration of geographic entities representing real locations spatial information on the earth’s surface is one of the strengths and prominent functionalities of a GIS (Kam 1989). Quantitative information can be combined with qualitative information to create a functional model in GIS to represent a real world (Martin and Hall-Arber 2008; Breman 2002). GIS use a spatial database for its functions; typically, the database has two elements a spatial database describing the geography of a feature and an attribute database describing any associating characteristics (Orenstein 1986).

GIS offers powerful tools to address complex issues and allows for efficient and effective organize, update, and query geospatial data (Rolf, By, and others 2000). It provides the tools for applying spatial analysis, managing data, and mapping the results of the spatially referenced biophysical and socioeconomic information (Martin and Hall-Arber 2008). With GIS, complex spatial systems between biophysical and human processes are easily integrated and analyzed (Chapman and Turner 2004). It also provides a logical function in which FLS mapping is applied and used to calculate some of the necessary attributes (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004).

With GIS software geospatial data can be visualized and analyzed in new ways, revealing previously hidden relationships, patterns and trends (Borges, Davis, and Laender 2001). GIS software such as ESRI ArcGIS Desktop is used to visualize the spatial/temporal distribution of fishing activities and the socio-biophysical linkage affecting this distribution (Fisher 2007). Furthermore, GIS supports decision making process by helping to design and develops management practices grounded in regional, biophysical, social and political realities (Breman 2002). Carocci et al. (2009) reported how mapping enabled visualization of the spatial dimensions of fisheries activities in the northern Gulf of California, the spatial distribution of fishing activities and the social-biophysical linkage affecting this distribution was successfully visualized.

2.3 Characteristic of marine artisanal fisheries

A fishery is the interaction between the fishery resource, its environment, and humans. The benefits of a fishery system can be economic, nutrition or sport related. Artisanal fishing is an important economic activity in many countries (Gameiro and Wilson 2003). It employs thousands of people, provides food to a large part of the population and contributes significantly to foreign exchange earnings (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). While artisanal fishing refers to an activity, artisanal fisheries refer to the sector. Artisanal fisheries generally use relatively low levels of technology and investment both for fishing and for processing (Allison and Ellis 2001). It is also distinguished by its high levels of labor input, which is often recruited through family relationships (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). Artisanal fishing in Tanzania is characterized by being carried out within the near shore coastal waters of depth not exceeding 30 meter deep (Muhando and Jiddawi 1998). Some artisanal fishing occurs in depths of 100 m and more by using larger boats such as dhows (Semesi et al. 2001). Fishing communities exist in many small villages scattered along the entire coastline of Tanzania Mainland.

Artisanal fishermen use traditional crafts, mostly propelled by oar, pole or sail and simple fishing gears (Muhando and Jiddawi 1998). Common fishing vessels used along the coastline of Tanzania include dugout canoes, outrigger canoe, boats, and dhows. Outrigger and dugout canoe are the most extensively fishing vessels used in marine waters of Tanzania because they are cheaper than boat and relatively more efficient than dhows (Tarbit, 1985). The fishing gears commonly used are lines (handline and longline), traps (fixed and moveable), nets (purse seine, scoop, drift gillnets, demersal gillnets with small and large mesh, shark nets and surrounding gill nets), spear guns and iron harpoons (Jiddawi and Stanley 1997).

Since the main propulsion for the fishing vessel is wind, the fishing areas protected by the coral reef barriers and bays are the only places where it is possible to fish all the year round . Fishing is carried out mainly in shallow water areas of coral reefs and seagrass beds that are easily accessible from fishing villages and landing sites (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). In the intertidal area, fish stocks are supported by a combination of benthic and water column primary productivity (Semesi et al. 2001). The high benthic productivity in shallow habitats like coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove attracts corresponding high secondary (zooplankton) and tertiary (fish and invertebrates) productivity.

The best fishing grounds of Tanzania coastal water are found in the Pwani Region (Muhando and Rumisha in press). Areas with relatively high abundance of fish include the areas around Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo and Zanzibar channel as well as areas around Mafia, Kilwa and Rufiji delta (Muhando and Jiddawi 1998). The channel is characterized by continental shelf extending to the island of Unguja and Mafia, as well as estuaries of the largest rivers such as Pangani, Wami, Ruvu and Rufiji flowing into the Indian Ocean (Tarbit, 1985). These favourable conditions make it the most coastal productive area [Semesi et al. (2001). It is in this zone where there is the highest concentration of artisanal fishing activities (Semesi et al. 2001).

2.4 Fish Landing Sites

A landing site is a useful entry point for management and development planning in artisanal fisheries because it is the one geographical place where the majority of stakeholders come together: boat owners, fishers, fish processors, fish traders, mechanics, food sellers and carpenters, fisheries field staff, customs officers and harbor police (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). The landing site is thus an effective and efficient starting point for understanding the characteristic of artisanal fisheries as well as on the strategy on how to manage it. A fish landing site may range from a small settlement on a stretch of beach with hardly any infrastructure and facilities to larger artisanal fisheries areas that are part of bigger ports or harbors in or close to urban centers (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004).

A fish landing site is used for receiving fish from small-scale fishermen, fishing fleets motorized with outboard engines or inboard diesel engines and non motorized sailing vessels [De Young (2006). The bulk of the catch landed is marketed as fresh fish and is sold to consumers in the vicinity of the landing sites and in the densely populated areas (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). The FLS attributes depend on the market, which is an institution that enables product exchanges to take place (De Young 2006). The market serves as a connection between the producer (fishermen) and consumer (resident, hotel developer). FLS serves both a physical function (buying, selling, storage, processing, Transportation and information) and economic function (price, behaviour).

Some of the facility found at FLS includes fish receiving stations and market, land based fish storage facilities, ice making facilities and processing plants (Mngulwi 2003). These are facilities to support fishers in their day to day operations. They are meant to facilitate marketing of the catch and reduce post harvest losses (Muhando and Rumisha in press). Other facilities at FLS are fish store, potable water, toilet facilities, boat and net repair facilities, accessibility, weighing scales and electricity supply (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). Each FLS is different and is shaped by different forces (social, economic, political, demographic, resource, legal).

2.5 The value of Fish landing site

Many factors go into determining fish landing site value. The size of the area and number of buildings plays a large part. Typically, market and auction buildings with facilities increase the fish landing site value (Tarbit 1984). There are several other features that help determine fish landing site value; located near urban center, close to public transportation and the age and condition of building and facilities of the landing site (Verstralen, Lenselink, and Ramirez 2004). All of these can add to its value. Another factor in fish landing site value is the current fishing efforts (type and number of fishing vessels and gears). The more the fishing effort, the more valuable the landing site, (Tarbit 1984) particularly if it constitutes vessels which are more valuable such as boats and dhows. Supply and demand fish products and other fish related infrastructural facilities if available adds th e wealth of the landing site (Medina Pizzali 1988).

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